Linke Zhang, Tao Pang, Lingwei Zeng, Feng Huang*, Daqin Chen*

Cite this article: Chin. J. Struct. Chem., 2025, 44(11), 100713. DOI: 10.1016/j.cjsc.2025.100713

Publication date: November 1, 2025

Keywords: Core-shell nanoparticles; Lanthanide ions; Non-steady-state upconversion; Luminescent materials

ABSTRACT

Lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles exhibit unique optical properties, enabling the conversion of low-energy photons into high-energy ones. This capability has facilitated their extensive application in fields such as bioimaging and information security. Traditional research has primarily focused on steady-state characteristics, with strategies such as core–shell structural design, ion doping, and surface passivation being employed to achieve high-brightness luminescence and color tuning. Over the past decade, the study of non-steady-state characteristics has emerged as a research hotspot and has introduced a new dimension for the dynamic control of luminescence. This review systematically surveys the mechanisms, manipulation strategies, and characterization methods of non-steady-state upconversion luminescence and provides an overview of the latest advancements in its applications, including multi-dimensional anti-counterfeiting, full-color volumetric display, velocimetry, photonic coding, and logic operation. Furthermore, this review analyzes the current limitations in studying the non-steady-state characteristics of lanthanide-doped fluoride nanostructures and offers perspectives on future development directions. Collectively, these efforts provide a comprehensive framework of knowledge for the field and lay the foundation for further development and expansion of non-steady-state upconversion technologies. We anticipate that this review will provide fundamental insights and guidance for manipulating upconversion properties, thereby further promoting their applications and advancing non-steady-state upconversion technologies.